Baby alive that eats food

— There have been several such turning points in evolution. For example, about 6-8 million years ago, we observe primates that were most likely herbivores. But 2-3 million years ago, some of them become omnivores. Moreover, according to one of the modern hypotheses, it was the transition to omnivorousness that led to the development of the proper human line of evolution. A little later, in the time of Australopithecus, we observe a completely amazing fact - explosive encephalization - an unprecedented development of the brain in intensity. And for those Australopithecus who did not follow this path and remained herbivorous, this did not happen. As a result, they gradually left the evolutionary arena. That is, vegetarians, herbivorous australopithecines are not our ancestors, but a lateral, dead-end branch. nine0003

To find the stomach of the mummy Ötzi, scientists used computed tomography methods

Photo: AP

- Can we say that eating animal protein made us human?

- Most likely, it was a complex of reasons. For example, at the same time, some individuals began to hunt together. To do this, they had to interact, develop a complex system of communications, which also contributes to the improvement of cognitive functions. It is interesting that today we see something similar among chimpanzees: clearly preferring fruits, fresh leaves and flowers in food, in conditions of hunger and stress, they can switch to forms of joint hunting. nine0003

— That is, omnivorousness was forced?

- On the one hand, apparently, yes. On the other hand, omnivorous protein nutrition turned out to be more energetically beneficial. The body does not need to spend so much energy digesting and extracting energy from protein foods. As we know, herbivores are forced to eat all the time, and it is enough for a predator to eat once a day.

We see that a change in diet leads to significant changes in human physiology. For example, over time, representatives of the genus Homo during the prenatal period require more and more protein and fat components for normal development, because the composition of the baby's body includes a large amount of fat. nine0003

- Were there any other drastic changes in the human diet, like the transition to omnivores?

- The following changes are associated with the primary resettlement of our distant ancestors from Africa to Eurasia. According to one hypothesis, it was due to the fact that a person followed the herd animals. By the way, at that time the pattern of human settlement coincided with the settlement of large cats, so we have the right to consider a person of that period as a predator. In the cultural layers that tell us about the times when the land outside the African continent was inhabited by Pithecanthropes (about a million years ago. — "O" ), find many broken bones of animals. This means that they were hunted.

- Does this mean that plant foods are giving way to meat in the diet?

- No, plant foods, of course, remained. At the stage of Homo erectus (upright man. - "O" ) there is a tradition to use fire. Then a sharp decrease in the size of the teeth begins, already at this time they differ sharply from what we observe in all animals living at that time. That is, softer ingredients began to be consumed in food, but this does not mean that we are talking only about meat. It could be the same roots, stems, shoots, fish, seafood, mushrooms, and so on. nine0003

Shell mound culture

— Were there differences in the diet of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, early Homo sapiens? Is it possible, based on these differences, to draw conclusions why the first ones died out, but our predecessors did not?

- Generally speaking, Neanderthals were hunters of large herd mammals. This is confirmed by the work in different territories, including here in Altai. Therefore, Neanderthals chose caves for their dwellings, which were located in the valleys where herds grazed. nine0003

As for our ancestors, the sapiens, it seems that everything was not so simple. They actively settled, it was easier to find food for themselves in new conditions, and therefore their diet was more universal. In particular, according to one of the hypotheses, sapiens liked to settle along the coastlines of the seas.

These were the southern coasts of Asia, starting from the Arabian Peninsula and on to India, the seas of Southeast Asia, Indonesia and the islands, Australia and so on. Unfortunately, due to the fact that the glaciers melted from time to time and the ocean level changed all the time, the territories were flooded, and therefore many signs of these cultures were lost. However, we have unique Mesolithic archaeological sites called "shell mound cultures". Some of them are located on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in the territory of modern Denmark, and belong to the early Holocene period - about 6 thousand years BC. They are sediments from the remains of seafood 3-4 meters deep, which stretch for hundreds of meters. That is, people lived in one place for thousands of years and exploited the sea in a wonderful way. Similar monuments were found on the Pacific coast in the region of Korea, in our Far East. We assume that the sea was very attractive to people in terms of the richness and variety of food. Therefore, the basis of their diet was fish, invertebrates and seafood. This is a wonderful light, useful, energetically valuable and not dangerous protein in production. Even children could find such food. I have a personal impression that our love and craving for the sea is a kind of instinct that draws us to the most comfortable and human-friendly places of life. nine0003

Meat has always been a significant, but far from the main food of ancient man

Photo: Fine Art Images / DIOMEDIA

— We know that Neanderthals ended up with larger brains than Cro-Magnons. Can we assume that this is the result of a meat protein diet?

- I'm afraid we will never know the answer to this question. Although the question of the size of the Neanderthal brain is one of the most important and interesting for anthropologists. The fact is that it was not only larger than that of a person, but also a slightly different shape. This is due to the fact that Neanderthal children did not grow up like modern ones. They developed very rapidly and quickly, they had teeth earlier, they had a shorter feeding period and matured faster. On the one hand, this is very beneficial, because a child is always more vulnerable to danger than an adult. On the other hand, this tender period is very good for learning, sharing experience, and building social connections. Neanderthals, probably, did not need a grandmother, but sapiens turned out to be very useful. She could no longer participate in the active life of the tribe, but she could take care of the child. This contributed to the emergence of altruistic relations and, in general, the strengthening of society. So the rate of development of the organism, physiology and way of life, which means that culture are very connected. Therefore, as soon as we start talking about food, we move on to a whole range of topics related to human life. nine0003

Not by bread alone

— I suppose that the next leap in the human diet is connected with the Neolithic revolution, when agriculture began to prevail and bread and porridge appeared on the table of ancient people?

- You know, 30 years ago, scientists were sure that the early Neolithic groups of people who were already farmers ate mostly bread. But as soon as the isotope method of research appeared, it became clear that this was not at all the case. They still ate a lot of meat food, and cereal products were more of a delicacy than a main meal. And this is not surprising, because it was difficult to grow a rich harvest. In general, their diet, in terms of diversity, was inferior to that of hunter-gatherers: they ate absolutely everything, and the number of edible plants in their menu was unusually large. nine0003

— When did the consumption of milk and bread as a significant product begin?

- Interestingly, this is also associated with a change in thinking. On the whole, we have a poor idea of ​​the consciousness of ancient man. Food for him was perceived as a source of life. It is literally what a person is made of. Therefore, in order to start drinking cow's milk, a person had to essentially agree that he was her child. The process of such a metamorphosis was very long. The domestication of animals itself took place, apparently, in several stages. At first, territories where herds could graze and not disperse were fenced off with natural barriers and earthen buildings. Then a person began to somehow take care of animals, a mutual process of rapprochement took place, and at some point in many places on earth a bull cult arose. In India, by the way, the cow is still a sacred animal precisely because it is a nurse. And it must be said that the earliest pastoralists herded cows and bulls, not goats and sheep. nine0003

These are very profound things that are inaccessible to modern man, who has a purely utilitarian, consumerist attitude to food. But we still have echoes of this consciousness. For example, it is quite difficult for us to start eating unfamiliar food when we arrive in another place. It is interesting to try, but it is difficult to adopt other food traditions. Not only the body is rebellious, but also the psyche, our deepest instincts. In order for us to start eating, say, guinea pigs, dogs or caterpillars, we need not just an effort of will, but some restructuring of consciousness. nine0003

— Is it still difficult with bread?

— The oldest bread is currently 14 thousand years old. This means that it was baked 4,000 years before agriculture began. It was found in Northern Jordan. At that time, this place had mild climatic conditions, and there were large communities of sedentary hunter-gatherers who lived permanently under large rocky sheds. An essential component of their diet was grains of wild plants, which grew there in great abundance. The first bread, made from a mixture of several wild cereals and crushed plants, was supposed to taste like modern unleavened bread - lavash or pita. So, apparently, they began to grow cereals because people already knew how to make bread out of them. nine0003

Expulsion from the Stone Age

— According to one of the existing theories, the transition of mankind to a settled existence and subsistence by agriculture was not a progressive step, but a tragedy. In particular, the overcrowding of people has led to the spread of infections and other misfortunes. There is even an opinion that it was this transition in religious consciousness that was interpreted as expulsion from paradise. Does this have any evidence from anthropologists?

— The idea of ​​paradise is difficult to confirm or disprove — this is a philosophical question. But in general, this point of view is justified. There is a well-known paradox associated with the life of people in the deep Stone Age: almost all discovered skeletons dating back to this time do not bear traces of any serious diseases. Finding an infection in the Stone Age is a real sensation. Neolithization, the transition to a manufacturing economy really led to the spread of infections, to an increase in early female and child mortality. In addition, with this lifestyle, it became more difficult to endure the periods of famine that accompanied mankind throughout ancient history. Hunter-gatherers, in the case of, say, hunting failures, could replace meat with other food. Settled life did not imply such mobility; a pestilence or crop failure turned into tragedies. The labor costs of a hunter and a farmer are also incomparable. In this regard, modern ethnographic works in Africa are of interest, where there are still rather isolated tribes of hunter-gatherers and those who live settled and farm in the traditional way. We found out that the first ones work much less, because they are not tied to a place, they do not need to protect crops and livestock. As a result, they always have a richer folklore, sophisticated jewelry, tattoos and, in general, culture. And a person who is imprisoned for constant production no longer belongs to himself. So in general, in the early stages of the transition to settled life, life expectancy among people began to fall. nine0003

— Why did you cross over then? Was it a forced step?

- Now this is a very popular topic in Europe. There are many works that show the progressive spread of agriculture in this area. The sedentary way of life was brought to Europe by people genetically different from the local tribes who moved to the Balkans from Asia Minor. They brought here the culture of agriculture, cattle breeding and building houses. It is interesting that this culture represented a completely different economic model, a different worldview, a different way of life, but nevertheless, its spread did not, as it seems to us, provoke aggression. This is one of the most positive experiences of mankind in the assimilation of cultural ideas. As a result, a new way of life spread throughout Europe within 2-3 thousand years. nine0003

— Why did he win in the end?

- This is a very interesting point. For some reason, the phenomenon of a settlement with buildings, with decorated houses and a decorated interior turns out to be very attractive to a person. At this time, weaving and other home crafts began to develop rapidly. In this Neolithic life, woman begins to play a significant role. This can be judged by a large number of figurines of that time: these are stone images of a fat female body, symbolizing fertility in every sense. Somewhat later, with the development of cattle breeding, the main character becomes a man - a shepherd. nine0003

— Are there any reconstructions of the diet of ancient people who lived on the territory of modern Russia?

— Yes, the settlements around Lake Baikal, in Altai, have been well studied, there are works on the Minusinsk basin, the Far East, the habits of the early pastoralists of the Northern Ciscaucasia and the Western Caspian have been studied. If we talk about the central regions, here the transition to a settled way of life was very, very slow. Up to the 5th-3rd millennium BC, large communities of hunter-gatherers continued to exist here. Moreover, interestingly, their diet was so diverse that we cannot identify any typical picture. As a result, this abundance of nutritional strategies has led to a very successful demographic development. But with the advent of a settled agricultural culture, the population falls. At the same time, on the whole, we do not have much data on the eating habits of the ancient Slavic tribes, because up to the 8th-9th centuries AD, they mostly cremated the dead. nine0003

Now we are studying medieval Russian towns at our institute. A lot of work is underway in Yaroslavl, where mass graves of citizens have been discovered - from babies to the elderly. This is connected with a huge tragedy - the capture of the city by Batu Khan. It is interesting that the urban population of the medieval city mainly ate, again, meat and dairy products and fish. Northern agriculture made its way with great difficulty, especially in the XII-XIII centuries, when the Little Ice Age began. That is, bread loaves, the existence of which we know from epics, were described there precisely because they were a rarity, a festive meal. nine0003

Maria Dobrovolskaya, anthropologist

Photo: from the personal archive

— Summing up the conversation, it turns out that modern adherents of Paleo diets, calling for eating mainly protein food, are not right? Is the paleo diet really all about eating everything at once?

— Of course, it is. And this applies to all peoples, and not just to the European population. Even if we take the Eskimo tribes, who mainly eat meat and fat, we will see that they always tried to add some plants, mosses, lichens and algae to the diet. This is no coincidence, a person is omnivorous, and it is natural for him to taste everything. Here we are talking not only about a physiological need, but also about a conceptual understanding of reality: through a variety of tastes, a person understood the world and joined it. nine0003

If we return to the modern understanding of the paleo diet, then, of course, there is one positive moment in it - a complete rejection of sweets. Because dried fruits and honey are adequate products, and everything that the modern confectionery industry produces is components that are completely alien to the human body, which lead it into a state of shock. Never in the history of mankind has there been such a huge amount of quickly available calories.

— What do you attribute the growing interest in the study of ancient diets to? nine0019