Feeding baby thrushes
Breastfeeding and thrush - NHS
Breast and nipple pain in breastfeeding women is sometimes caused by a thrush (candida) infection in the breast. Breastfed babies can also develop thrush in their mouths.
Thrush infections sometimes happen when your nipples become cracked or damaged. This means the candida fungus that causes thrush can get into your nipple or breast.
Thrush infections can also happen after you or your baby has had a course of antibiotics. Antibiotics may reduce the number of helpful bacteria in the body and allow the candida fungus that causes thrush to flourish.
Signs of thrush in breastfeeding women
You may have a thrush infection in your breasts if:
- you start to feel pain in both nipples or breasts after feeds, having previously had no pain after feeding
- the pain can range from sore to severe and lasts for up to an hour after every feed
It's not likely to be thrush if:
- you have always experienced pain while breastfeeding
- the pain only affects 1 nipple or breast
- you have a fever
- there is a warm, red patch on 1 of your breasts
Symptoms of oral thrush in breastfed babies
Signs to look for include:
- creamy white spots or patches on the tongue, gums, roof of the mouth or insides of the cheeks – if you gently wipe these patches with a clean cloth, they won't come off
- your baby being unsettled when feeding
- a white film on the lips
- in some babies, nappy rash that won't clear up
If you suspect you or your baby has a thrush infection, see your health visitor or GP. They can arrange for swabs to be taken from your nipples and your baby's mouth to see if thrush is present. It's important other causes of breast pain are ruled out before you start treatment for thrush.
If no thrush is present, the pain may be caused by something else, such as poor positioning and attachment. It's important for your midwife, health visitor or a breastfeeding specialist to watch you do a full breastfeed and give advice if needed.
Read more about other possible causes of breast pain.
If either you or your baby does have thrush, you'll need to be treated at the same time as the infection can easily spread between you. It can also spread to other members of the family.
Washing your hands carefully after nappy changes and using separate towels will help prevent the infection spreading. You'll also need to wash and sterilise any dummies, teats or toys your baby puts in their mouth.
You'll need to wash any breastfeeding bras at a high temperature and change your breast pads frequently while you're both being treated.
If you express any breast milk while you have thrush, you'll need to give the milk to your baby while you're still having treatment. Do not freeze it and use it at a later date, as this could cause the thrush to come back.
Treating thrush when you're breastfeeding
You can carry on breastfeeding while you and your baby are treated for thrush.
Oral thrush in babies is usually treated with an antifungal gel or liquid. This is safe for your baby to have. It's important to wash your hands carefully after treating your baby.
See more about treating oral thrush in babies.
Thrush in breastfeeding women is usually treated with a cream that you sparingly spread on and around your nipples after feeds.
You'll need to wash your hands thoroughly after treating yourself. Some women may need to take antifungal tablets to clear the infection.
Once you and your baby start treatment, your symptoms should improve within 2 to 3 days. It will take a little longer for the infection to clear completely.
If you don't see any improvement within 5 days, speak to your health visitor or GP.
Page last reviewed: 2 September 2022
Next review due: 2 September 2025
Thrush and Breastfeeding - La Leche League GB
There are many causes of nipple and breast pain. Nipple thrush is one possible cause, although it is often wrongly or over-diagnosed before other possibilities have been investigated. A skilled breastfeeding supporter can help you rule out other possible causes before a thrush diagnosis is made.
What is thrush?
Thrush is a yeast infection, usually caused by the fungus Candida albicans.
Thrush likes warm, dark and moist environments, and it might grow on your nipple.
Candida albicans is naturally present in our bodies and usually it causes us no harm; however, certain things can create an imbalance in the body and cause an overgrowth. These include:
- Previous nipple damage.
- If you have thrush affecting any other part of your body, or if another family member has a thrush infection.
- If you or your baby have been treated with antibiotics or corticosteroids.
- If you take the contraceptive pill.
- Bottle or dummy use, especially in the early weeks after birth.
- Anaemia or diabetes.
- Exhaustion and stress.
Diagnosing Thrush
Thrush is diagnosed by symptoms and/or by looking at mother and baby. Sometimes culture samples are taken. This is known as swabbing.
There are different views about swabbing.
Some breastfeeding organisations recommend swabbing to confirm thrush1. However, some studies say that swabbing is neither reliable nor accurate, as Candida can be part of the normal healthy skin surface. Although the Candida species can be easily singled out in the laboratory when present in milk, there is a lack of consistent rules for milk sample, collection, storage and analysis globally. 2
Swabbing is more complex than just ‘taking a test’. It does not always give a clear thrush diagnosis, or confirm if the pain is due to thrush or a bacterial infection. The roles of bacteria and yeast in relation to nipple and breast pain during breastfeeding remain unclear. It is also possible to have both Staph. and Candida on the nipples without any symptoms.
Thrush symptoms
There can be many causes of ‘thrush-like’ symptoms. Nipple and breast pain is likely to be caused by something OTHER THAN thrush if:
- Breastfeeding has always been painful.
- Your nipples are flattened, wedge-shaped or appear white after feeds.
- Your baby has no symptoms.
Signs of thrush in the nursing parent may include:
- A burning feeling in the nipples, especially after every feed.
- Itchy nipples that may be sensitive to touch.
- Flaking and/or shiny skin on the nipple or areola. Nipple skin and areola may be red on lighter skin and darker brown, purple or grey on darker skin. This can be more difficult to see on darker skin tones.
- White patches/tiny blisters on the nipple or areola.
- A loss of colour in the nipple or areola.
- A nipple wound which is not healing despite appropriate management.
- Nipple pain which:
- Gets worse during feeds and may continue after a feed.
- Begins suddenly after a period of pain-free breastfeeding.
- Happens on both sides.
According to research, thrush is more likely to be a cause of painful nursing if the following symptoms occur together:
- Shiny nipple/areola with stabbing pain
- Flaky nipple/areola and mammary pain.
3
Pain may be felt deep in the breast; however, deep shooting pain between feeds, previously said to be a secondary infection in the milk ducts, is more likely to have a different cause.4
Signs of thrush in the baby include:
- White patches on the cheeks, tongue, roof of mouth or gums. When wiped off they may look red or bleed.
- Nappy rash.
- Fussing during and between feeds due to pain.
A white coating on the tongue alone is not a sign of thrush as most nursing babies have a white, milky coating on their tongue (sometimes this may be as a result of poor tongue function). Nappy rash and fussiness may also have other causes.
Not Thrush? Alternative causes
Other conditions that can result in ‘thrush-like’ symptoms may include:
Bacterial infection
Bacterial and thrush infections of the nipple can have similar symptoms, such as burning pain and soreness.
Staphylococcus aureus (Staph.) is the most common bacteria associated with breast infection. With a bacterial infection of the nipple there may be:
- Yellow pus in the damaged area.
- Yellow scabs or crusty areas on the nipple.5
It is possible for you to have both thrush and a bacterial infection.
Shallow latch
When the latch is shallow, the nipple is squashed, causing pain on the nipple and sometimes deeper within the breast. This may damage the nipple and increase the possibility of a bacterial infection. Even when thrush is the cause of sore nipples, a deeper latch can make it less painful.
You can read more about Positioning and Attachment here.
Skin conditions
Skin conditions, such as eczema or psoriasis, can affect the nipple area. Some people may also have sensitivities to nipple balms containing lanolin. If you have a history of skin allergies or a similar problem elsewhere on your body, discuss this with your GP.
A dermatology referral is sometimes necessary.
You can read more about causes of nipple pain here.
Subacute Mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of the breast. This may or may not be caused by a bacterial infection.
Often, the general term ‘mastitis’ is used to mean one type of breast inflammation. However, it may help to think of mastitis as being on a spectrum, with blocked ducts at one end and abscess at the other.
Different types of bacteria may be involved in breast inflammation. Some of these do not cause fever or flu-like symptoms, but you may still experience painful breastfeeding, needle-like burning pain and engorgement. Some researchers have suggested the term ‘subacute mastitis’ to describe inflammation of the breast without fever or flu-like symptoms. These researchers believe that the term ‘mammary candidiasis’ (thrush) should be avoided and replaced by ‘subacute mastitis’. 6,7
You can read more about mastitis and treatment of mastitis here.
Vasospasm
Vasospasm is a sudden narrowing of the blood vessels. The main cause of nipple vasospasm is a shallow latch. When the nipple is squashed it may turn white or change shape. As blood flows back to the nipple, it causes pain on the nipple and deeper in the breast. Deep breast pain is sometimes called ‘Mammary Constriction Syndrome’. Tension and positioning may add to deep breast or muscle pain.
Vasospasm is also connected with the circulatory condition Raynaud’s Phenomenon. A history of Raynaud’s may increase the likelihood of it happening during breastfeeding. Symptoms may happen in response to cold and separately from breastfeeding.
For more information see Further Reading.
Thrush Treatments
When thrush is diagnosed, it is recommended that both mother and baby are treated at the same time, even if one is symptom free, as they may pass a thrush infection back and forth between them. Breastfeeding should continue if thrush is diagnosed.
Medications for the nursing parent:
- The most effective treatment for topical thrush is Miconazole (Daktarin) cream (2%), which should be applied to the nipple in small amounts after every feed. In mild cases, expect improvement within a couple of days. In more severe cases, it may take 3 to 5 days or longer. Sometimes, symptoms get worse before they get better. 8
- If nipples are very inflamed, a mild steroid cream (hydrocortisone 1%) can be used to facilitate healing.
- If symptoms do not improve, oral fluconazole may be required in addition to the above. A higher initial dose of 150-400mg is prescribed, followed by 100-200mg daily for at least 10 days. It may take a week or longer for the pain to disappear. 9
- Mothers may also be prescribed nystatin (Nystan) cream or ointment, or clotrimazole (Canestan) cream. However, both are considered to be less effective than other options and clotrimazole is associated with allergic reactions.
10
Thrush can spread to other family members. Therefore, it may be necessary to treat partners and, if breastfeeding more than one child, the sibling.
Comfort options
- Use crushed ice on your nipples before nursing.
- Rinse nipples with clean water and let them air dry after each feeding. If cold or air drying increases the pain, it may be related to nipple vasospasm (see above).
- Take mild over-the-counter pain medication.
- In the short term, express milk and offer it to your baby by another means if feeding is too painful.
Medications for the baby:
-
- Miconazole (Daktarin) oral gel four times a day after feeds. Manufacturers recommend that this is not used in babies under 4 months due to risk of choking. Healthcare providers must ensure that the parent/carer is aware of how to apply the gel safely if prescribed under this age.
11 - Nystatin (Nystatin) oral suspension may be prescribed, but this is considered less effective than miconazole gel.
- Miconazole (Daktarin) oral gel four times a day after feeds. Manufacturers recommend that this is not used in babies under 4 months due to risk of choking. Healthcare providers must ensure that the parent/carer is aware of how to apply the gel safely if prescribed under this age.
Neither miconazole gel or nystatin suspension should be applied to the mother’s nipples.
Non-medical treatment options:
Practical, self-help measures you can take to combat thrush alongside medication include:
-
-
- Frequent hand washing, particularly after nappy changes or using the toilet.
- Having a separate towel for each person in the family, or at least for you and your baby.
- Keeping nipples dry. Avoid breast pads, if possible, or throw away/change frequently.
- Wearing 100% cotton bras and underwear.
- Washing towels/clothing at 50 °C or above. A hot iron can also kill yeasts.
- Washing and sterilising dummies, nipple shields, teats and toys frequently.
- Replacing toothbrushes, toiletries and cosmetics.
- Reducing sugar, yeast, dairy products and artificial sweeteners.
- Rinsing nipples with vinegar in water or baking soda in water after every feed.
- Switching to a non-antibacterial hand soap.
- Taking herbal supplements and vitamins, such as grapefruit seed extract, garlic, B vitamins and zinc.
- Anecdotally, some mothers find it helpful to take a probiotic, such as lactobacillus acidophilus.
-
If there is no improvement following prescription medications and self-care measures, then it may be worth considering if the original diagnosis of thrush is correct.
Expressing milk
Previously, parents were advised to avoid expressing and storing milk during a thrush infection to avoid possible re-infection, as freezing does not kill yeast. However, there is currently no evidence to suggest that this will happen.
If you are worried about using expressed/stored milk during a yeast infection, you can either use it while you and your baby are being treated for thrush, or you can warm the milk to 63 °C for 30 minutes to kill bacteria and yeast, before cooling and offering.
Current/ongoing research
Research has been carried out on both breastfeeding and non-breastfeeding, non-pregnant women in order to learn more about yeast infections of the nipple and reliable ways of confirming this.
There are different views about the presence of nipple thrush and how accurately it is diagnosed. One study suggests that the evidence supporting a link between nipple/breast pain and thrush is “non-scientific” and largely anecdotal, without the support of a proper microbiological analysis.12
Others believe that since thrush does not grow on normal skin, damage of the nipple and areola as a result of a shallow latch is the real problem and that, unless this is dealt with, nipple thrush will remain difficult to treat.
13
In summary
Candida albicans is naturally present in our bodies and finding an overgrowth can be difficult. Furthermore, the relationship between and the role of fungus and bacteria in relation to nipple/breast pain is unclear.
More research is needed to understand how common nipple thrush is and to find reliable ways of confirming this.
Further LLLGB reading
Blocked Ducts & Mastitis
Comfortable Breastfeeding
Nipple Pain – Why and What to do?
Positioning & Attachment
The Unhappy Breastfed Baby
References
1. The Breastfeeding Network Drugs in Breastmilk Information. Thrush and Breastfeeding, May 2020
(accessed 18th September 2022).
2. Jiménez E, Arroyo R, Cárdenas N, et al. Mammary candidiasis: A medical condition without scientific evidence? PLoS ONE, 2017; 12(7):
e0181071.
3. Mohrbacher, N. Breastfeeding Answers Made Simple. TX: Hale Publishing, 2012; 727.
4.
Ibid., 728.
5. Ibid., 724.
6. Jiménez E, Arroyo R, Cárdenas N, et al. Mammary candidiasis: A medical condition without scientific evidence? PLoS ONE, 2017; 12(7):
e0181071.
7. Mohrbacher, N. Breastfeeding Answers Made Simple. TX: Hale Publishing, 2012; 755.
8. Ibid., 730.
9. Ibid.
10. The Breastfeeding Network Drugs in Breastmilk Information. Thrush and Breastfeeding, May 2020, (accessed 18th September 2022).
11. The Breastfeeding Network Drugs in Breastmilk Information. Miconazole Gel and the Breastfed baby with Oral Thrush (Candida), May 2020, (accessed 16th August 2022).
12. Jiménez E, Arroyo R, Cárdenas N, et al. Mammary candidiasis: A medical condition without scientific evidence? PLoS ONE, 2017; 12(7):
e0181071.
13. International Breastfeeding Centre. Candida Protocol, 2021, ibconline.ca/information-sheets/candida-protocol/ (accessed 18th September
2022).
https://www.unicef.org.uk/babyfriendly/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2013/10/NIFN_statement_thrush_2014.
pdf
https://www.laleche.org.uk/positioning-attachment/
https://www.laleche.org.uk/mastitis/
https://www.llli.org/breastfeeding-info/thrush/
https://breastfeeding.support/thrush-on-nipples/
https://breastfeeding.support/nipple-vasospasm-breastfeeding/
https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/breastfeeding-problems/management/breastfeeding-problems-management/
Written by Charlotte Allam.
LLLGB copyright. Updated October 2022.
feeding and maintenance advice
Thrushes are insectivorous birds. Nests are built mainly in a young mixed or coniferous sparse forest with dense undergrowth near water and fields. Their "dwelling" is bowl-shaped, collected from grass stalks, small branches, moss, sealed with saliva. It is located on a tree, and not high from the ground.
Both parents incubate the clutch. Birds feed mainly on the ground, looking for insects in the forest floor. They are also heated to plumage together. Thrushes bring several insects to their chicks on average 4 times per hour.
Food is collected near the nest, at a distance of no more than 200 m.
You will have to forget about peace for some time if somehow (picked up, specially taken to raise a singing bird, someone threw it in) you got a thrush chick. The photo shows the baby well. You need to immediately decide what you will do with him: leave him to live in the house or release him into the wild. It should be noted that if the chick is very small (it has fluff on its head), and you pick it up, then an adult bird will be completely tame.
The main difficulty in raising a baby is to provide him with warmth. Thrush chick should be kept in captivity at a temperature of about 40 about C. To do this, you need to make a simple thermostat. You can use a plywood box, and it is preferable to make a small wall at the bottom, and the opposite will be a lid. At the bottom of the sidewall, strengthen the cartridge and screw in the light bulb. Fill it with sand 5 cm and install a nest. It can be built from rags or found natural.
It is unacceptable to use cotton wool, as the thrush chick will get entangled in it.
To be sure that overheating from the light bulb does not occur, you will have to install an incandescent rheostat or a thermometer on the surface of the sand. In the first version, the light bulb can not be turned off, and in the second one, you will have to periodically look at the readings and when heated to 41 to C turn off. A fledgling thrush chick will not tolerate overheating, as well as hypothermia, it will die. Fledgling birds do not need heating, they can live in a basket with a lid.
If the chick was taken from the nest, then the first feeding in the house should be in 5 hours, because. he will need time to adapt. It is better to feed babies found outside their natural habitation immediately, because it is not known how long they are starving. Relatively large cubs have to be forced to eat, they do not open their mouths voluntarily. Food must be pushed further down the throat, otherwise it will be spit out.
Before force-feeding, you can resort to tricks - knock on the basket or move it. This will improvise the arrival of the mother, and perhaps the thrush chick will open its mouth. Usually, when hungry, he makes sounds, demanding food. It must be given as soon as possible. Babies get used to people quickly, after the 3rd feeding they themselves open their mouths wide.
The question arises as to what to feed the thrush chick. Given that these birds are insectivorous, the answer suggests itself: flies, moths, zofobas, etc. Feeds for insectivores with a low content of iron and vitamin C can be used, because. they accumulate in the liver and adversely affect development. It is recommended to give him egg white, boiled potatoes and corn, apples, melons, berries, banana, pear, yogurt. Raisins, grapes, kiwi, strawberries, citrus fruits, green vegetables, tomatoes, egg yolk, red meat, liver are contraindicated.
Thrush chick is gluttonous, it is necessary to feed it every hour, in extreme cases - two.
You can use tweezers with blunt ends. Before going to bed, it is advisable to place a basket with a chick near the bed in order to hear a squeak indicating the need for feeding. You have to get up, otherwise the baby will die of hunger.
In hot weather, the chicks need to pour water from a pipette. In crushed eggshell, which is essential for bones, pieces of food can be rolled before feeding. Even the chicks need sand, without it the food stagnates in the stomach, and death may occur.
When the thrush chick grows up, it needs to be taught to peck food on its own. Each time, food must be given from a lower position. Then they hold it, not putting it in the mouth until he grabs it. A little later, the food is placed in front of him, the chick has no choice but to pick it up, i.e. he will peck her. It is good to give moving food - a fly with wings torn off, a wriggling worm (but not rain, which is a source of helminths).
A lot of trouble. If there is any doubt that you can handle it, it is better not to take on nursing the chick.
If they are not, success and patience!
Common Blackbird
B Common Thrush ( Turdus Merula ) is a variety of the true thrush. It is also called Eurasian Blackbird (especially in North America to distinguish it from the unrelated New World Blackbird), [2] or simply Blackbird where it does not lead to confusion with similar native species. Breeds in Europe, Asian Russia and North Africa, introduced to Australia and New Zealand. [3] It has a number of subspecies throughout its great range; some Asian subspecies are sometimes considered full-fledged species. Depending on the latitude, the blackbird can be resident, partially migratory, or fully migratory.
Adult male common thrush ( Turdus merula merula which subspecies to designate), which occurs throughout most of Europe, is all black except for a yellow eye ring and bill and has a rich, melodious song; the adult female and juveniles are predominantly dark brown in color.
plumage. This species nests in forests and gardens, building neat, clay-lined cupped nests. it is an omnivore, eating a wide variety of insects, earthworms, berries, and fruits.
Both sexes are territorial on spawning grounds with distinct signs of threat, but more gregarious during migration and in wintering grounds. Pairs remain in their territory all year round, where the climate is quite moderate. This common and conspicuous appearance has been the subject of a number of literary and cultural references, often associated with his songs. Taxonomy and systematics0058
- 4.1 Dilution
- 4.2 Songs and calls
- 4.3 Feeding
- 4.4 Natural threats
- 9.1 Species Information
- 9.2 Sounds and Videos
- 9.
3 Images
Taxonomy and systematics
Common thrush described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark year 1758 10th edition Systema Naturae as Turdus Merula (characterized as T. ater, rostro palpebrisque fulvis ). [4] The binomial name comes from two Latin words Turdus "thrush" and Merula "blackbird", from the latter its French name, merle , [5] and is a Scots name , merle . [6]
There are about 65 species of medium and large thrushes in the genus. Turdus is characterized by rounded heads, long pointed wings and usually melodic songs. Although two European thrushes, the song thrush and the mistle thrush, are early offshoots of the Eurasian lineage Turdus thrushes after they spread northward from Africa, the blackbird descended from ancestors that colonized the Canary Islands from Africa and then entered Europe from there. . [7] In evolutionary terms, it is close to the island thrush ( T.
poliocephalus ) of Southeast Asia and the islands in the southwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, which probably moved away from the T. merula runoff relatively recently. [8]
It may not be immediately clear why the name "blackbird", first recorded in 1486, was applied to this species, but not to one of the other common black English birds, such as the scavenger, raven, rook, or a jackdaw. However, in Old English, and modern English until about the 18th century, the term "bird" was used only for small or young birds, with larger ones such as ravens called "poultry". At that time, the blackbird was the only widely distributed and conspicuous "black bird" in the British Isles. [9] Until about the 17th century, another name for the species was Knot , Thrush , or Wosel (from Old English Osle , cf. German Amsel ). Another option occurs in the third act. Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream where Bottom refers to "Woozell's Rooster, so black with a tawny beak.
" The use of the knot survived later in poetry and is still found today as the name of the closely related knot ring ( Turdus torquatus ), and in the water node, an alternative name for the unrelated but superficially similar white-throated dipper ( Cinclus cinclus ). [10]
Minor T. Merula in England
Young adult T. Merula in Oxfordshire
A Watering Adult Male in England with a large amount of white in plumage
T.M. Cabrerae on Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
Two related Asian Turdus blackbirds, the white-collared thrush ( T. albocinctus ) and the grey-winged thrush ( T. boulboul ), also called blackbirds, [8] and the Somali thrush ( T. (olivaceus) 9003e) also known as the Somali blackbird. [11]
B jaundice The New World family is sometimes called the blackbird family because of the superficial resemblance of some species to the common blackbird and other Old World thrushes, but they are not evolutionarily related, being relatives of the New World warbler and tanagera.
[12] The term is often limited to smaller species with predominantly or entirely black plumage, at least in breeding males, especially males. cowbirds, [13] to Grackles, [14] and about 20 species with the word "blackbird" in the name, such as the Red-winged Thrush and the Melodious Thrush. [12]
Subspecies
As would be expected from a widespread passerine species, there are several geographical subspecies. The consideration of subspecies in this article follows Clement et al. (2000). [8]
Female subspecies Merula
Central Asian subspecies, relatively large intermediate , also differs in structure and voice and may represent a separate species. [16] Alternatively, it has been suggested that it should be considered a subspecies of T. maximus , [8] but differ in structure, voice and appearance of the eye ring. [16] [17]
Similar species
In Europe, the common thrush may be confused with the more pale-winged winter thrush.
ring knot ( Turdus torquatus ) or superficially similar common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ). [18] A number of similar Turdus thrushes exist far beyond the range of the common thrush, such as the South American Chiguanco Thrush ( Turdus chiguanco ). [19] The Indian thrush, the Tibetan thrush, and the Chinese thrush were formerly considered subspecies of the common thrush. [20]
Description
Common thrush assign subspecies T. m. Merula is 23.5 to 29 centimeters (9.25 to 125 grams (2.8 to 4.4 in. oz ). The adult male has glossy black plumage, black-brown legs, a yellow eye-ring, and an orange-yellow bill. In winter, the beak darkens somewhat. [18] An adult female is dark brown in color with a dull yellowish brownish bill, a brownish white throat, and small spots on the breast. The juvenile is similar to the female, but has pale spots on the upper body, and a very young chick also has a mottled chest.
Young birds are distinguished by a shade of brown, in darker birds presumably males. [18] The first-year male is similar to the adult male, but has a dark bill and a weaker eye ring, and its folded wing is brown instead of black like the body plumage. [8]
Distribution and habitat
The common blackbird breeds in the temperate climates of Eurasia, North Africa, the Canary Islands, and South Asia. It has been introduced to Australia and New Zealand. [8] The population is sessile in the south and west of the range, although northern birds migrate south to North Africa and tropical Asia in winter. [8] Urban males are more likely to overwinter in cooler climates than rural males, an adaptation made possible by a warmer microclimate and relatively abundant food, allowing the birds to settle in areas and start breeding earlier in the year. [21] Finds of thrushes ringed on the Isle of May show that these birds commonly migrate from southern Norway (or north to Trondheim) to Scotland and some to Ireland.
Scottish-ringed birds have also been found in England, Belgium, Holland, Denmark and Sweden. [22] Female thrushes in Scotland and the north of England migrate more frequently (to Ireland) in winter than males. [23]
The common blackbird, distributed throughout most of its range in forested areas, prefers deciduous trees with dense undergrowth. However, gardens provide the best breeding habitat, with up to 7.3 pairs per hectare (nearly three pairs per acre), with woodlands typically covering about one tenth of this density and open and heavily built habitats even less. [24] They are often replaced by the related ring knot in areas at higher elevations. [25] The common thrush also lives in parks, gardens and hedgerows. [26]
Blackbird occurs up to 1000 meters (3300 ft) in Europe, 2300 meters (7590 ft) in North Africa and 900–1820 meters (3000–6000 ft) in peninsular India and Sri -Lanka, but the large Himalayan subspecies are spreading.
much higher, from T. m. Maximus breed at 3,200–4,800 meters (10,560–16,000 ft) and remain above 2,100 meters (6930 feet) even in winter. [8]
This widespread species has been found as a vagrant in many places in Eurasia outside its normal range, but records from North America are generally thought to include escapees, including, for example, the 1971 Quebec bird. [27] However, the 1994 entry of Bonavista, Newfoundland, was accepted as a true wild bird, [8] and therefore the species is on the North American list. [28]
Behavior and ecology
Eggs in the nest
Two chicks in the first hours when another egg hatches
Two chicks in the nest
Blackbird chicks feeding ". This consists of a short run where the head is first raised and then tilted while lowering the tail. If a fight does occur between male thrushes, it is usually short and the intruder is soon chased away. The female blackbird is also aggressive in the spring when she competes with other females for good nesting territory, and although fights are less frequent, they tend to be more violent.
[24]
B Billa Appearance is important in common thrush interactions. The territorial male reacts more aggressively to orange-billed models than to yellow-billed models, and reacts least to the brown bill color typical of freshman males. The female, however, is relatively indifferent to beak color, but instead reacts to more lustrous beaks. [29]
As long as there is winter food, both males and females will remain in the territory throughout the year, although they occupy different territories. Migrants are more sociable, move in small flocks and feed in small groups during wintering. The flight of migratory birds consists of bursts of rapid wingbeats alternating with a horizontal or diving movement, and differs both from the normal rapid rapid flight of this species and from the larger downward movement of larger thrushes. [15]
Breeding
Eggs, Collecting Wiesbaden Museum
A male Common Thrush attracts a female by a courtship display that consists of oblique runs combined with head bowing movements, open beak and "strangled" low song.
The female remains motionless until she raises her head and tail to allow copulation. [24] This species is monogamous, and an established pair usually stays together as long as they both survive. [15] Pair separation rates of up to 20% have been noted after poor breeding. [30] Although this species is socially monogamous, studies have shown a 17% parentage rate outside of a pair. [31]
Nominee T. merula may start breeding in March, but eastern and Indian races appear a month or more later, and introduced New Zealand birds begin breeding in August (late winter). [8] [25] Breeding pair seeks a suitable nest site in vines or bushes, preferring evergreen or thorny species such as ivy, holly, hawthorn, honeysuckle or pyracantha. [32] Birds sometimes nest in sheds or outbuildings where a ledge or recess is used. The bowl-shaped nest is made up of grasses, leaves, and other vegetation bound together by mud.
It is built only by a woman. She lays three to five (usually four) bluish-green eggs marked with reddish-brown spots, [24] heaviest at the larger end; [25] eggs nominate T. merula measure 2.9 × 2.1 cm (1.14 in × 0.93 in) and weigh 7.2 grams (0.25 oz), of which 6% are shell. [33] The eggs of birds of South Indian races are lighter than those of birds of the northern subcontinent and Europe. [8] Female incubates 12–14 days before altrial chicks hatch naked and blind. Fledging takes another 10–19 (average 13.6) days when both parents feed the chicks and remove the faecal sacs. [15] The nest is often poorly camouflaged compared to nests of other species, and many breeding attempts fail due to predation. [34] The chicks are fed by their parents for three weeks after leaving the nest and will follow the adults begging for food. If the female opens another nest, the male will feed the feathered young. [24] Second broods are common, with the female reusing the same nest if the brood was successful, and three broods may be reared in the south of the common thrush's range.
[8]
The common thrush has an average lifespan of 2.4 years, [35] and according to the ringing bird, the oldest recorded age is 21 years 10 months. [36]
Songs and calls
[38] 
[43] 
[46] Although ixodid ticks can transmit pathogenic viruses and bacteria known to transmit Borrelia bacteria to birds, [47] there is no evidence that this affects the fitness of thrushes, except when they become emaciated and emaciated after migrations. [46] 
e., a decline of more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore rated as Least Concern. [49] In the western Palearctic, populations are generally stable or increasing, [15] but locally there is a decline, especially on farmland, which may be due to agricultural policies that encouraged farmers to remove hedges (which provide space for nesting), drain wet pastures, and increase the use of pesticides, both of which may have reduced food availability for invertebrates. [39] 
[50] It is believed to spread weeds such as brambles and may compete with native birds for food and nesting sites. [50] [52] 
[55] Like many other small birds, in the past it was caught in the countryside to roost as a readily available supplement to the diet. [56] and in medieval times the practice of placing live birds under the pie crust just before serving may have been the origin of the familiar rhyme: [56] 
[59] 
[65] 
1046 / j.1474-919X.2002.00102.x. Archived from the original (PDF) Dec 17, 2008 9 Gharib, Ashraf (11/09/2018). "Remembering Sabah: Iconic Lebanese-Egyptian Singer and Actress". Ahram Online . | This article contains embedded links to audio files. If you're having trouble playing files, see Wikipedia Media Help. |
Species information
- BBC Science & Nature - Blackbird, with song video (archive)
- Birds of Britain - Blackbird
- Madeira birdwatching - Subspecies information Cabrerae
- RSPB - Blackbird, including video and audio clips
- iberCaja Class Network - Blackbird age and sex determination (archived PDF; 5.
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